Beefcake!
2007-01-31, 13:12
För att bidra lite till den allmänna förvirringen i ämnet: många eller få måltider om dagen, vad är mest optimalt? Så postar jag här ett par mer eller mindre relevanta, och i huvudsak relativt färska undersökningar som stöder tesen att en hög måltidsfrekvens är att föredra. Är väl medveten om att det nog finns lika många undersökningar som pekar på att måltidsfrekvensen är mer eller mindre irrelevant, och skall försöka posta dem också (om inte någon annan hinner före ;)).
Between-meal Energy Intake Effects On Body Composition, Performance And Total Caloric Consumption In Athletes
Benardot, Dan FACSM; Martin, David E. FACSM; Thompson, Walter R. FACSM; Roman, Susan B.
Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: Volume 37(5) Supplement May 2005 p S339
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of consuming 250 kcal between meals (750 kcal total per day) in male (M) and female (F) athletes.
METHODS
Using a double-blind protocol approved by Georgia State University's IRB, collegiate athletes (N=61; mean Age = 22.1 ± 6.0 y) were randomly assigned to experimental (E, 17 F and 14 M) and control (C, 15 F and 15 M) groups. E consumed a pre-packaged 250-calorie between-meal snack and C consumed a calorie-free between-meal flavored beverage (placebo) for two weeks. The subjects were assessed at baseline, and at 1, 2, and 6 weeks following baseline on height, weight, body composition (DEXA), anaerobic power and endurance (Wingate Test, 30-second protocol), and dietary intake (3-day food diaries). There were no significant differences between E and C on these values at baseline.
RESULTS
After two weeks, E experienced a significant (P = .006) drop in % fat (- 1.03%), a significant increase (P = .003) in LBM (+ 1.2 kg), a significant (P <.001) increase in anaerobic power (AP, + 0.4 Watts/kg), and a significant increase (P <.001) in energy output (EO, + 12.27 Joules/kg) over 30 seconds. By contrast, C experienced no significant change in % fat, LBM, EO, or AP taken at the same intervals. Neither group experienced a significant change in weight. Although E received an additional 750 kcal of food each day, a non-significant dietary increase of 128 kcal per day after 2 weeks suggested that self-selected meal sizes were reduced to accommodate the kcal provided by the between meal snacks. At 6 weeks, values generally reverted to the baseline.
CONCLUSIONS
Regular between-meal snacking results in desirable body composition and performance outcomes in collegiate athletes. Despite these benefits, athletes reverted to their baseline eating behaviors when the snack was not available, resulting in a general reversal of body composition and performance improvements. Providing foods to increase eating frequency and making these foods readily available to athletes could encourage desirable gains in athletic performance and improvements in body composition.
Effects of meal frequency on body composition during weight control in boxers
IWAO S., MORI K., SATO Y.
Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1996 Oct;6(5):265-72.
The effects of meal frequency on changes in body composition by food restriction were investigated. Twelve boxers were divided between a two meals day[-1] group (the 2M group) and a six meals day[-1] group (the 6M group). Both groups ingested 5.02 MJ (1200 kcal) day[-1]for 2 weeks. Although there was no difference in change of body weight by food restriction between the two groups, the decrease in lean body mass (LBM) was significantly greater in the 2M group than in the 6M group. The decrease in urinary 3-methylhistidine/creatinine was significantly greater in the 6M group than in the 2M group. These results suggest that the lower frequency of meal intake leads to a greater myoprotein catabolism even if the same diet is consumed.
Highlighting the positive impact of increasing feeding frequency on metabolism and weight management.
Louis-Sylvestre J, Lluch A, Neant F, Blundell JE.
Forum Nutr. 2003;56:126-8.
Research on feeding frequency started more than 20 years ago and some studies have shown evidence of nutritional benefits, especially on metabolism and body weight management. Advice on feeding frequency could play an important role in public health policies by reducing levels of overweight and obesity, the prevalence of which has dangerously increased in most countries over the last few decades. The 17th International Congress of Nutrition brought to the forefront the benefits of increasing feeding frequency (i.e. keeping the same total daily energy intake but dividing it into more frequent meals than usual). Recent epidemiological studies, mostly carried out in France, have provided evidence on the beneficial effects of a fourth meal for those individuals who habitually choose this pattern. Supported by metabolic data, these findings have now been supported by experimental studies. The "gouter", commonly eaten in the afternoon in France by most children and many adults, has the biological characteristics of a meal because it is eaten in response to hunger. Suppressing the "gouter" in "habitual fourth meal eaters" soon leads to an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI). Further, people who are regular "gouter" eaters have a higher carbohydrate intake and better metabolic profile than other adults, even though their total energy intake is not greater. Increased feeding frequency leads to a reduction in the total secretion of insulin, an improvement in insulin resistance and a better blood glucose control, as well as an improvement in the blood lipid profile. The experts agreed that, as long as we do not consume more energy than we use up and we only eat when we are hungry, it may be useful to split our total energy intake into as many meals as our social pattern allows. However, the pattern of eating cannot be completely dissociated from the composition of foods consumed. Therefore within this energy intake, we must take care to consume not only a good balance of macronutrients with high carbohydrate and low fat levels, but also ensure that we get an adequate intake of essential micronutrients. "What you eat" and "When you eat it" are public health messages to communicate: frequent consumption of low energy dense high carbohydrate foods, rich in micronutrients, must be encouraged ensuring that energy intakes are not greater than energy expenditures and that eating episodes occur in a hunger state.
Meal frequency and childhood obesity
Toschke AM, Kuchenhoff H, Koletzko B, von Kries R.
Obes Res. 2005 Nov;13(11):1932-8
OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have demonstrated an inverse association between meal frequency and the prevalence of obesity in adulthood. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between meal frequency and childhood obesity.
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Stature and weight of 4,370 German children ages 5 to 6 years were determined in six Bavarian (Germany) public health offices during the obligatory school entry health examination in 2001/2002. An extensive questionnaire on risk factors for obesity was answered by their parents. Obesity was defined according to sex- and age-specific BMI cut-off points proposed by the International Obesity Task Force. The main exposure was daily meal frequency.
RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity decreased by number of daily meals: three or fewer meals, 4.2% [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.8 to 6.1]; four meals, 2.8% (95% CI, 2.1 to 3.7); and 5 or more meals, 1.7% (95% CI, 1.2 to 2.4). These effects could not be explained by confounding due to a wide range of constitutional, sociodemographic, and lifestyle factors. The adjusted odds ratios for obesity were 0.73 (95% CI, 0.44 to 1.21) for four meals and 0.51 (95% CI, 0.29 to 0.89) for five or more meals. Additional analyses pointed to a higher energy intake in nibblers compared with gorgers.
DISCUSSION: A protective effect of an increased daily meal frequency on obesity in children was observed and appeared to be independent of other risk factors for childhood obesity. A modulation of the response of hormones such as insulin might be instrumental.
Evidence that eating frequency is inversely related to body weight status in male, but not female, non-obese adults reporting valid dietary intakes
Drummond SE, Crombie NE, Cursiter MC, Kirk TR.
International Journal of obesity, February 1998, Volume 22, Number 2, Pages 105-112
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationships between eating frequency (EF) and body weight status and to determine whether these relationships can be explained in terms of differences in physical activity levels, macronutrient intakes or energy compensation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional design; free-living subjects, 48 men and 47 women (aged 20-55 y, body mass index (BMI) 18-30), recruited in a workplace setting.
MEASUREMENTS: Height and weight; skinfold thickness (four sites); EF, energy and macronutrient intakes (food diary, unweighed, recorded for seven consecutive days); physical activity (7 d activity diary and heart rate monitoring over 48 h period).
RESULTS: In men there was a significant negative correlation between EF and body weight, and an inverse relationship with body mass index (BMI). EF was positively correlated with % energy from carbohydrate, although not with total energy intake. In women, there was no relationship between EF and body weight status; however, there were significant positive correlations between EF and total energy intake, and between EF and intakes of total carbohydrate and sugars. For both men and women, there were associations between EF and physical activity levels, approaching statistical significance.
CONCLUSIONS: In men, the association between increased EF and lower body weight status may have been influenced by increased physical activity levels. As energy intake did not increase with EF, men appear to have compensated by reducing the mean energy consumed per eating episode. Energy compensation did not take place in women, with women who ate most frequently having the highest energy intakes, although this did not lead to higher BMIs Physical activity, through participation in active leisure pursuits, may have been an important factor in weight control in women. The % contribution of carbohydrate to total energy was positively correlated with EF in both men and women, and further analysis showed that snack foods provided a higher proportion of carbohydrate than did foods eaten as meals. These results indicate that a high EF is likely to lead to a high carbohydrate diet, which may be favourable for weight control. Our findings suggest that in this population, a high EF was associated with leanness in men, and there was no link between EF and body weight status in women.
Ok, denna har några år på nacken..:
Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency
Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Vuksan V, Brighenti F, Cunnane SC, Rao AV, Jenkins AL, Buckley G, Patten R, Singer W, et al.
N Engl J Med. 1989 Oct 5;321(14):929-34
We studied the effect of increasing the frequency of meals on serum lipid concentrations and carbohydrate tolerance in normal subjects. Seven men were assigned in random order to two metabolically identical diets. One diet consisted of 17 snacks per day (the nibbling diet), and the other of three meals per day (the three-meal diet); each diet was followed for two weeks. As compared with the three-meal diet, the nibbling diet reduced fasting serum concentrations of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B by a mean (+/- SE) of 8.5 +/- 2.5 percent (P less than 0.02), 13.5 +/- 3.4 percent (P less than 0.01), and 15.1 +/- 5.7 percent (P less than 0.05), respectively. Although the mean blood glucose level and serum concentrations of free fatty acids, 3-hydroxybutyrate, and triglyceride were similar during both diets, during the nibbling diet the mean serum insulin level decreased by 27.9 +/- 6.3 percent (P less than 0.01) and the mean 24-hour urinary C-peptide output decreased by 20.2 +/- 5.6 percent (P less than 0.02). In addition, the mean 24-hour urinary cortisol excretion was lower by 17.3 +/- 5.9 percent (P less than 0.05) at the end of the nibbling diet than at the end of the three-meal diet. The blood glucose, serum insulin, and C-peptide responses to a standardized breakfast and the results of an intravenous glucose-tolerance test conducted at the end of each diet were similar. We conclude that in addition to the amount and type of food eaten, the frequency of meals may be an important determinant of fasting serum lipid levels, possibly in relation to changes in insulin secretion.
Consequence of Omitting or Adding a Meal in Man on Body Composition, Food Intake, and Metabolism
Didier Chapelot, Corinne Marmonier, Roberte Aubert, Chloé Allègre, Nicolas Gausseres, Marc Fantino and Jeanine Louis-Sylvestre
Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Feb;14(2):215-27.
The influence of eating frequency on body composition has provided relatively consistent results in animals. For example, in rats, more fat-free mass and less fat mass are gained for a similar body weight when food intake is fractionated in several small meals instead of few big meals. If these data are relevant to human eating, this would mean a lower body fat for a similar body weight and may have important consequences in terms of public health because it is established that body fat rather than body weight per se is the primary cause of increased morbidity. Such a beneficial result could, therefore, be reached by a simple change in the daily number of meals. The present study was designed to determine whether a change in the usual meal frequency of young and healthy male subjects would result in changes of adiposity and associated biological parameters. To be as relevant as possible to real-life conditions, the researchers modified meal frequency of subjects only by asking them to omit from or to include in their usual eating pattern an afternoon eating occasion known in France as the gouter. This eating occasion generally distinguishes four- and three-meal eaters in this country, leading to a doubling of the lunch and dinner intermeal interval in the latter group. It is consumed by most children but persists in only approximately 30% of adults.
Twenty-four young normal-weight male subjects were recruited, 12 usual four-meal and 12 usual three-meal eaters, differing only in the consumption of an afternoon meal. They omitted or added a fourth meal during a 28-day habituation period and were asked to report their intake on three three-day occasions. Before and after this habituation period, subjects participated in a session with a time-blinded procedure, and blood was collected continuously from lunch to the spontaneously requested dinner. Body composition, respiratory quotient, and biochemical parameters were measured in the late evening preceding each session.
Omitting a meal was followed by increases in fat mass (360 [+ or -] 115 g), late evening leptin concentration (20.7 [+ or -] 11.0%), and respiratory quotient (RQ, 3.7 [+ or -] 1.4%). Increase in the percentage of dietary fat during the habituation period (+4.1 [+ or -] 2.0%) was correlated with fat mass (r = 0.66). Adding a meal had no effect, but, in both groups, the change in energy content at this fourth eating occasion was correlated with the change in adiposity.
Most changes were observed in the four-meal eater group who switched to three meals per day by omitting the gouter. In this group (4 MF to 3 MF), mean fat mass, late evening leptin concentration, and RQ increased between sessions by 3.3 [+ or -] 1.3%, 20.7 [+ or -] 11.0%, and 3.7 [+ or -] 1.4%, respectively. Energy intake at lunch and dinner was also higher in S2 than in S1 but not enough to compensate for the energy of the omitted gouter. Percentages of protein and fat in the diet were also increased during the first one-third of the habituation period. The causal role of omission of a meal in the change in body composition was supported by the positive correlation between the level of daily energy to which the gouter contributed before the experiment and the change in fat mass; the higher the energy intake at the gouter, the higher the gain in fat mass on omission of the gouter. Looking at individual data, fat deposition occurred mostly when omitting this meal represented a high energy challenge. It is important to note that such a relation was not found for other meals, arguing for the specific role of the omitted meal. Thus, not only the duration of the intermeal interval but also the level of exogenous energy usually provided during this intermeal interval will contribute to fat deposition.
These findings also provide new insight on the relations between leptin and body composition. First, fat mass was more strongly correlated with late evening plasma leptin than with any diurnal leptin time-point. Second, in the 3 MF to 4 MF group, the individual changes in fat mass and late evening leptin concentrations were negatively correlated, but there was a strong positive correlation between leptin and fat-free mass. This relation is particularly unusual.
The last result is the increase in carbohydrate oxidation as estimated by the RQ in the 4 MF to 3 MF group. Across subjects, the RQ was in a narrow range (0.771 [+ or -] 0.02), evidencing a metabolism in which fat and carbohydrate contributed 77% and 23%, respectively. In the 4 MF to 3 MF group, glucose and NEFAs were correlated with the RQ with positive and negative coefficients, respectively. Moreover, the changes in fat-free mass and fat mass also correlated with the change in RQ, with positive and negative coefficients, respectively. This suggests that the more that fat mass is gained, the more that fat oxidation will increase during the midnocturnal period.
In conclusion, these results show that reducing meal frequency of lean male subjects by only one meal per day during one month induced a rapid but transitory increase in spontaneous dietary fat, fat gain, and midnocturnal leptin increase. These changes could be adaptive, allowing metabolism to face longer intermeal intervals through increased fatty acid disposal. Switching from a three- to a four-meal pattern by decreasing intake at much did not induce any change. These results suggest that individuals having a usual four-meal pattern could be at risk of gaining adiposity if they shift to a lower meal frequency, a hypothesis that would require assessment in future studies.
Impact of Meal Timing and Frequency on the Twenty-Four-Hour Leptin Rhythm
A.J. Fogtelooa, H. Pijla, F. Roelfsemaa, M. Frölichb, A.E. Meindersa
Hormone Research 2004;62:71-78 (DOI: 10.1159/000079326)
Objective: To study the influence of changes in meal timing and frequency on the diurnal rhythm of leptin and on the 24-hour profile of insulin and glucose. Patients and Methods: Five obese women were studied twice during a weight-maintaining diet in either 3 daily or 8 day and night equal portions. Blood was sampled for 24-hour profiles of leptin and insulin. Results: During the 8-meal intervention, the 24-hour rhythm of leptin changed significantly: the amplitude decreased (p = 0.0089) and the acrophase was delayed by 168 min (p = 0.021). Also, 8 small insulin secretion peaks occurred instead of the 3 postprandial high insulin peaks. Conclusion: The dispersion of food intake over 24 h affects the diurnal leptin rhythm. These changes could not be attributed to changes in circadian timing or energy balance. Instead, changes in daily insulin secretion profiles might play a role.
Between-meal Energy Intake Effects On Body Composition, Performance And Total Caloric Consumption In Athletes
Benardot, Dan FACSM; Martin, David E. FACSM; Thompson, Walter R. FACSM; Roman, Susan B.
Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise: Volume 37(5) Supplement May 2005 p S339
PURPOSE
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of consuming 250 kcal between meals (750 kcal total per day) in male (M) and female (F) athletes.
METHODS
Using a double-blind protocol approved by Georgia State University's IRB, collegiate athletes (N=61; mean Age = 22.1 ± 6.0 y) were randomly assigned to experimental (E, 17 F and 14 M) and control (C, 15 F and 15 M) groups. E consumed a pre-packaged 250-calorie between-meal snack and C consumed a calorie-free between-meal flavored beverage (placebo) for two weeks. The subjects were assessed at baseline, and at 1, 2, and 6 weeks following baseline on height, weight, body composition (DEXA), anaerobic power and endurance (Wingate Test, 30-second protocol), and dietary intake (3-day food diaries). There were no significant differences between E and C on these values at baseline.
RESULTS
After two weeks, E experienced a significant (P = .006) drop in % fat (- 1.03%), a significant increase (P = .003) in LBM (+ 1.2 kg), a significant (P <.001) increase in anaerobic power (AP, + 0.4 Watts/kg), and a significant increase (P <.001) in energy output (EO, + 12.27 Joules/kg) over 30 seconds. By contrast, C experienced no significant change in % fat, LBM, EO, or AP taken at the same intervals. Neither group experienced a significant change in weight. Although E received an additional 750 kcal of food each day, a non-significant dietary increase of 128 kcal per day after 2 weeks suggested that self-selected meal sizes were reduced to accommodate the kcal provided by the between meal snacks. At 6 weeks, values generally reverted to the baseline.
CONCLUSIONS
Regular between-meal snacking results in desirable body composition and performance outcomes in collegiate athletes. Despite these benefits, athletes reverted to their baseline eating behaviors when the snack was not available, resulting in a general reversal of body composition and performance improvements. Providing foods to increase eating frequency and making these foods readily available to athletes could encourage desirable gains in athletic performance and improvements in body composition.
Effects of meal frequency on body composition during weight control in boxers
IWAO S., MORI K., SATO Y.
Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1996 Oct;6(5):265-72.
The effects of meal frequency on changes in body composition by food restriction were investigated. Twelve boxers were divided between a two meals day[-1] group (the 2M group) and a six meals day[-1] group (the 6M group). Both groups ingested 5.02 MJ (1200 kcal) day[-1]for 2 weeks. Although there was no difference in change of body weight by food restriction between the two groups, the decrease in lean body mass (LBM) was significantly greater in the 2M group than in the 6M group. The decrease in urinary 3-methylhistidine/creatinine was significantly greater in the 6M group than in the 2M group. These results suggest that the lower frequency of meal intake leads to a greater myoprotein catabolism even if the same diet is consumed.
Highlighting the positive impact of increasing feeding frequency on metabolism and weight management.
Louis-Sylvestre J, Lluch A, Neant F, Blundell JE.
Forum Nutr. 2003;56:126-8.
Research on feeding frequency started more than 20 years ago and some studies have shown evidence of nutritional benefits, especially on metabolism and body weight management. Advice on feeding frequency could play an important role in public health policies by reducing levels of overweight and obesity, the prevalence of which has dangerously increased in most countries over the last few decades. The 17th International Congress of Nutrition brought to the forefront the benefits of increasing feeding frequency (i.e. keeping the same total daily energy intake but dividing it into more frequent meals than usual). Recent epidemiological studies, mostly carried out in France, have provided evidence on the beneficial effects of a fourth meal for those individuals who habitually choose this pattern. Supported by metabolic data, these findings have now been supported by experimental studies. The "gouter", commonly eaten in the afternoon in France by most children and many adults, has the biological characteristics of a meal because it is eaten in response to hunger. Suppressing the "gouter" in "habitual fourth meal eaters" soon leads to an increase in Body Mass Index (BMI). Further, people who are regular "gouter" eaters have a higher carbohydrate intake and better metabolic profile than other adults, even though their total energy intake is not greater. Increased feeding frequency leads to a reduction in the total secretion of insulin, an improvement in insulin resistance and a better blood glucose control, as well as an improvement in the blood lipid profile. The experts agreed that, as long as we do not consume more energy than we use up and we only eat when we are hungry, it may be useful to split our total energy intake into as many meals as our social pattern allows. However, the pattern of eating cannot be completely dissociated from the composition of foods consumed. Therefore within this energy intake, we must take care to consume not only a good balance of macronutrients with high carbohydrate and low fat levels, but also ensure that we get an adequate intake of essential micronutrients. "What you eat" and "When you eat it" are public health messages to communicate: frequent consumption of low energy dense high carbohydrate foods, rich in micronutrients, must be encouraged ensuring that energy intakes are not greater than energy expenditures and that eating episodes occur in a hunger state.
Meal frequency and childhood obesity
Toschke AM, Kuchenhoff H, Koletzko B, von Kries R.
Obes Res. 2005 Nov;13(11):1932-8
OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have demonstrated an inverse association between meal frequency and the prevalence of obesity in adulthood. The aim of this study was to assess the relationship between meal frequency and childhood obesity.
RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: Stature and weight of 4,370 German children ages 5 to 6 years were determined in six Bavarian (Germany) public health offices during the obligatory school entry health examination in 2001/2002. An extensive questionnaire on risk factors for obesity was answered by their parents. Obesity was defined according to sex- and age-specific BMI cut-off points proposed by the International Obesity Task Force. The main exposure was daily meal frequency.
RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity decreased by number of daily meals: three or fewer meals, 4.2% [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.8 to 6.1]; four meals, 2.8% (95% CI, 2.1 to 3.7); and 5 or more meals, 1.7% (95% CI, 1.2 to 2.4). These effects could not be explained by confounding due to a wide range of constitutional, sociodemographic, and lifestyle factors. The adjusted odds ratios for obesity were 0.73 (95% CI, 0.44 to 1.21) for four meals and 0.51 (95% CI, 0.29 to 0.89) for five or more meals. Additional analyses pointed to a higher energy intake in nibblers compared with gorgers.
DISCUSSION: A protective effect of an increased daily meal frequency on obesity in children was observed and appeared to be independent of other risk factors for childhood obesity. A modulation of the response of hormones such as insulin might be instrumental.
Evidence that eating frequency is inversely related to body weight status in male, but not female, non-obese adults reporting valid dietary intakes
Drummond SE, Crombie NE, Cursiter MC, Kirk TR.
International Journal of obesity, February 1998, Volume 22, Number 2, Pages 105-112
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationships between eating frequency (EF) and body weight status and to determine whether these relationships can be explained in terms of differences in physical activity levels, macronutrient intakes or energy compensation. DESIGN: Cross-sectional design; free-living subjects, 48 men and 47 women (aged 20-55 y, body mass index (BMI) 18-30), recruited in a workplace setting.
MEASUREMENTS: Height and weight; skinfold thickness (four sites); EF, energy and macronutrient intakes (food diary, unweighed, recorded for seven consecutive days); physical activity (7 d activity diary and heart rate monitoring over 48 h period).
RESULTS: In men there was a significant negative correlation between EF and body weight, and an inverse relationship with body mass index (BMI). EF was positively correlated with % energy from carbohydrate, although not with total energy intake. In women, there was no relationship between EF and body weight status; however, there were significant positive correlations between EF and total energy intake, and between EF and intakes of total carbohydrate and sugars. For both men and women, there were associations between EF and physical activity levels, approaching statistical significance.
CONCLUSIONS: In men, the association between increased EF and lower body weight status may have been influenced by increased physical activity levels. As energy intake did not increase with EF, men appear to have compensated by reducing the mean energy consumed per eating episode. Energy compensation did not take place in women, with women who ate most frequently having the highest energy intakes, although this did not lead to higher BMIs Physical activity, through participation in active leisure pursuits, may have been an important factor in weight control in women. The % contribution of carbohydrate to total energy was positively correlated with EF in both men and women, and further analysis showed that snack foods provided a higher proportion of carbohydrate than did foods eaten as meals. These results indicate that a high EF is likely to lead to a high carbohydrate diet, which may be favourable for weight control. Our findings suggest that in this population, a high EF was associated with leanness in men, and there was no link between EF and body weight status in women.
Ok, denna har några år på nacken..:
Nibbling versus gorging: metabolic advantages of increased meal frequency
Jenkins DJ, Wolever TM, Vuksan V, Brighenti F, Cunnane SC, Rao AV, Jenkins AL, Buckley G, Patten R, Singer W, et al.
N Engl J Med. 1989 Oct 5;321(14):929-34
We studied the effect of increasing the frequency of meals on serum lipid concentrations and carbohydrate tolerance in normal subjects. Seven men were assigned in random order to two metabolically identical diets. One diet consisted of 17 snacks per day (the nibbling diet), and the other of three meals per day (the three-meal diet); each diet was followed for two weeks. As compared with the three-meal diet, the nibbling diet reduced fasting serum concentrations of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B by a mean (+/- SE) of 8.5 +/- 2.5 percent (P less than 0.02), 13.5 +/- 3.4 percent (P less than 0.01), and 15.1 +/- 5.7 percent (P less than 0.05), respectively. Although the mean blood glucose level and serum concentrations of free fatty acids, 3-hydroxybutyrate, and triglyceride were similar during both diets, during the nibbling diet the mean serum insulin level decreased by 27.9 +/- 6.3 percent (P less than 0.01) and the mean 24-hour urinary C-peptide output decreased by 20.2 +/- 5.6 percent (P less than 0.02). In addition, the mean 24-hour urinary cortisol excretion was lower by 17.3 +/- 5.9 percent (P less than 0.05) at the end of the nibbling diet than at the end of the three-meal diet. The blood glucose, serum insulin, and C-peptide responses to a standardized breakfast and the results of an intravenous glucose-tolerance test conducted at the end of each diet were similar. We conclude that in addition to the amount and type of food eaten, the frequency of meals may be an important determinant of fasting serum lipid levels, possibly in relation to changes in insulin secretion.
Consequence of Omitting or Adding a Meal in Man on Body Composition, Food Intake, and Metabolism
Didier Chapelot, Corinne Marmonier, Roberte Aubert, Chloé Allègre, Nicolas Gausseres, Marc Fantino and Jeanine Louis-Sylvestre
Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Feb;14(2):215-27.
The influence of eating frequency on body composition has provided relatively consistent results in animals. For example, in rats, more fat-free mass and less fat mass are gained for a similar body weight when food intake is fractionated in several small meals instead of few big meals. If these data are relevant to human eating, this would mean a lower body fat for a similar body weight and may have important consequences in terms of public health because it is established that body fat rather than body weight per se is the primary cause of increased morbidity. Such a beneficial result could, therefore, be reached by a simple change in the daily number of meals. The present study was designed to determine whether a change in the usual meal frequency of young and healthy male subjects would result in changes of adiposity and associated biological parameters. To be as relevant as possible to real-life conditions, the researchers modified meal frequency of subjects only by asking them to omit from or to include in their usual eating pattern an afternoon eating occasion known in France as the gouter. This eating occasion generally distinguishes four- and three-meal eaters in this country, leading to a doubling of the lunch and dinner intermeal interval in the latter group. It is consumed by most children but persists in only approximately 30% of adults.
Twenty-four young normal-weight male subjects were recruited, 12 usual four-meal and 12 usual three-meal eaters, differing only in the consumption of an afternoon meal. They omitted or added a fourth meal during a 28-day habituation period and were asked to report their intake on three three-day occasions. Before and after this habituation period, subjects participated in a session with a time-blinded procedure, and blood was collected continuously from lunch to the spontaneously requested dinner. Body composition, respiratory quotient, and biochemical parameters were measured in the late evening preceding each session.
Omitting a meal was followed by increases in fat mass (360 [+ or -] 115 g), late evening leptin concentration (20.7 [+ or -] 11.0%), and respiratory quotient (RQ, 3.7 [+ or -] 1.4%). Increase in the percentage of dietary fat during the habituation period (+4.1 [+ or -] 2.0%) was correlated with fat mass (r = 0.66). Adding a meal had no effect, but, in both groups, the change in energy content at this fourth eating occasion was correlated with the change in adiposity.
Most changes were observed in the four-meal eater group who switched to three meals per day by omitting the gouter. In this group (4 MF to 3 MF), mean fat mass, late evening leptin concentration, and RQ increased between sessions by 3.3 [+ or -] 1.3%, 20.7 [+ or -] 11.0%, and 3.7 [+ or -] 1.4%, respectively. Energy intake at lunch and dinner was also higher in S2 than in S1 but not enough to compensate for the energy of the omitted gouter. Percentages of protein and fat in the diet were also increased during the first one-third of the habituation period. The causal role of omission of a meal in the change in body composition was supported by the positive correlation between the level of daily energy to which the gouter contributed before the experiment and the change in fat mass; the higher the energy intake at the gouter, the higher the gain in fat mass on omission of the gouter. Looking at individual data, fat deposition occurred mostly when omitting this meal represented a high energy challenge. It is important to note that such a relation was not found for other meals, arguing for the specific role of the omitted meal. Thus, not only the duration of the intermeal interval but also the level of exogenous energy usually provided during this intermeal interval will contribute to fat deposition.
These findings also provide new insight on the relations between leptin and body composition. First, fat mass was more strongly correlated with late evening plasma leptin than with any diurnal leptin time-point. Second, in the 3 MF to 4 MF group, the individual changes in fat mass and late evening leptin concentrations were negatively correlated, but there was a strong positive correlation between leptin and fat-free mass. This relation is particularly unusual.
The last result is the increase in carbohydrate oxidation as estimated by the RQ in the 4 MF to 3 MF group. Across subjects, the RQ was in a narrow range (0.771 [+ or -] 0.02), evidencing a metabolism in which fat and carbohydrate contributed 77% and 23%, respectively. In the 4 MF to 3 MF group, glucose and NEFAs were correlated with the RQ with positive and negative coefficients, respectively. Moreover, the changes in fat-free mass and fat mass also correlated with the change in RQ, with positive and negative coefficients, respectively. This suggests that the more that fat mass is gained, the more that fat oxidation will increase during the midnocturnal period.
In conclusion, these results show that reducing meal frequency of lean male subjects by only one meal per day during one month induced a rapid but transitory increase in spontaneous dietary fat, fat gain, and midnocturnal leptin increase. These changes could be adaptive, allowing metabolism to face longer intermeal intervals through increased fatty acid disposal. Switching from a three- to a four-meal pattern by decreasing intake at much did not induce any change. These results suggest that individuals having a usual four-meal pattern could be at risk of gaining adiposity if they shift to a lower meal frequency, a hypothesis that would require assessment in future studies.
Impact of Meal Timing and Frequency on the Twenty-Four-Hour Leptin Rhythm
A.J. Fogtelooa, H. Pijla, F. Roelfsemaa, M. Frölichb, A.E. Meindersa
Hormone Research 2004;62:71-78 (DOI: 10.1159/000079326)
Objective: To study the influence of changes in meal timing and frequency on the diurnal rhythm of leptin and on the 24-hour profile of insulin and glucose. Patients and Methods: Five obese women were studied twice during a weight-maintaining diet in either 3 daily or 8 day and night equal portions. Blood was sampled for 24-hour profiles of leptin and insulin. Results: During the 8-meal intervention, the 24-hour rhythm of leptin changed significantly: the amplitude decreased (p = 0.0089) and the acrophase was delayed by 168 min (p = 0.021). Also, 8 small insulin secretion peaks occurred instead of the 3 postprandial high insulin peaks. Conclusion: The dispersion of food intake over 24 h affects the diurnal leptin rhythm. These changes could not be attributed to changes in circadian timing or energy balance. Instead, changes in daily insulin secretion profiles might play a role.